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@074 CHAP ZZ
┌─────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ TAX ACCOUNTING METHODS │
└─────────────────────────────────────────────┘
"Never trust a naked certified public accountant.
Or one with clothes on." -- Jenkins' Fifth Law
of Business Survival (by Michael D. Jenkins,
CPA & Attorney)
The primary accounting methods businesses are allowed to
use for income tax purposes are the cash receipts and dis-
bursements method ("CASH BASIS") and the accrual method
("ACCRUAL BASIS"). However, certain taxpayers may be al-
lowed to use some hybrid combination of the two, such as
reporting inventory-related sales and purchases on an ac-
crual basis while reporting service income and miscellan-
eous other expenses on the cash basis. There are also
special methods of accounting, such as percentage-of-
completion or completed contract accounting for certain
long-term contractors, such as companies engaged in heavy
construction on long-term contracts. However, the Revenue
Reconciliation Act of 1989 completely eliminated the bene-
fits of completed contract accounting for most firms whose
average annual gross receipts for the 3 preceding years
exceed $10 million, except for certain qualified ship con-
tracts and certain home or residential construction con-
tracts. Such firms are generally required to use the less
desirable percentage-of-completion method for their long-
term contracts.
Also, small contractors (with under $10 million or less in
average annual gross receipts) are not subject to these new
restrictions on use of the completed contract method, but
only for construction contracts which are estimated to be
completed within two years of the contract commencement
date.
INVENTORY ACCOUNTING METHODS. In addition to overall tax
accounting methods, there are various tax accounting me-
thods that are permissible for tax purposes. While most
businesses with inventories use the simpler FIFO (first-in-
first-out) method of accounting for the value of such in-
ventories, a company may instead elect the complex "LIFO"
(last-in-first-out) method. In times of inflation, LIFO
is attractive since it assumes that items remaining in in-
ventory at year-end are the oldest such items, generally
those you bought or manufactured a long time ago, which
have a lower cost. By reducing the value of your ending
inventory, LIFO reduces your current taxable income, and
thus gives you significant tax deferral, particularly in
times of high inflation.
While using the LIFO method is quite complex and may re-
quire a lot of expensive accounting talent, a simplified
version of LIFO may be used by companies with under $5 mil-
lion a year in sales, as permitted by the Tax Reform Act
of 1986.
UNIFORM CAPITALIZATION RULES. However, the '86 Act also
adopted tough new uniform capitalization rules that require
all manner of indirect expenses to be capitalized and in-
cluded in the cost of inventory (for both FIFO and LIFO
taxpayers). Fortunately, small retailers and wholesalers
(with $10 million or less of average annual sales) are ex-
empted from this new requirement with regard to their in-
ventories. These capitalization rules also apply to expen-
ses incurred in construction and development activities.
With regard to inventory, the new rules require businesses
to capitalize not only direct costs of acquiring or produc-
ing inventory, but also a number of kinds of indirect costs
that were previously allowed as deductions, before the Tax
Reform Act of 1986. The new law (as amended by the Revenue
Act of 1987) requires some interest expense to be allocated
to inventory, and generally requires taxes, contributions
to pension and profit sharing plans (including past service
costs) and storage costs incurred by manufacturers follow-
ing completion of the manufacturing of a product to be allo-
cated as indirect costs. Wholesalers and retailers (other
than small firms exempt from the uniform capitalization
rules) are now required to allocate costs incident to pur-
chasing inventory (such as wages of employees who do pur-
chasing), repackaging, assembly and other costs incurred in
processing goods while in the taxpayer's possession; costs
of storing goods (rent, insurance premiums, taxes attribut-
able to a warehouse, etc.); and the portion of general and
administrative costs allocable to these functions. In
short, the new Uniform Capitalization rules are an account-
ing nightmare for those subject to them, as well as a way
of raising your tax burden by deferring the time at which
you can take a deduction for expenses incurred in your bus-
iness. Welcome to the world of "tax simplification."
@CODE: LS
Then, in @STATE, there is the "consistent fraud"
method of inventory accounting, which is widely used.
@CODE:OF